Abstract
Application of virtual reality (VR) in education has gained increasing attention, especially in collaborative learning contexts. However, existing research on the impact of VR-based collaborative learning on students' learning achievement has yielded inconsistent findings. The present meta-analysis synthesized 25 empirical studies published between 2013 and 2024, yielding 46 comparisons and a total of 3720 students, and examined the overall effect of VR-based collaborative learning on achievement. In addition, this study examined eight moderating variables: educational level, field of study, type of collaborative environment, group size, type of VR device, mode of VR device use, time spent in VR, and length of intervention. The results revealed a medium-positive effect size (Hedges' g = 0.50), suggesting that VR-supported collaborative learning can significantly enhance students' learning achievement. Moderator analyses showed that group size, time spent, and length of intervention in VR significantly influenced learning outcomes. Specifically, groups of four demonstrated the highest observed effect size in this meta-analysis, whereas the effect size for six-person groups was approximately half as large, suggesting that moderate group size may better support interaction and collaboration in VR-based learning. The most effective implementation involves 3 to 4 h per session with a minimum of four weeks of intervention in VR learning. The most effective implementation involved a total of 3 to 4 h in VR, indicating that balanced intensity and time investment enhance learning outcomes. These findings provide empirical support for the educational value of VR-based collaborative learning and offer practical guidance for designing effective VR-integrated learning environments.