Abstract
Although, titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO 2 NPs) are nanomaterials commonly used in consumer products, little is known about their hazardous effects, especially on central nervous systems. To examine this issue, ALT astrocyte-like, BV-2 microglia and differentiated N2a neuroblastoma cells were exposed to 6 nm of 100% anatase TiO 2 NPs. A lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was pre-treated to activate glial cells before NP treatment for mimicking NP exposure under brain injury. We found that ALT and BV-2 cells took up more NPs than N2a cells and caused lower cell viability. TiO 2 NPs induced IL-1β in the three cell lines and IL-6 in N2a. LPS-activated BV-2 took up more TiO 2 NPs than normal BV-2 and released more intra/extracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), IL-1β, IL-6 and MCP-1 than did activated BV-2. Involvement of clathrin- and caveolae-dependent endocytosis in ALT and clathrin-dependent endocytosis and phagocytosis in BV-2 both had a slow NP translocation rate to lysosome, which may cause slow ROS production (after 24 h). Although TiO 2 NPs did not directly cause N2a viability loss, by indirect NP exposure to the bottom chamber of LPS-activated BV-2 in the Transwell system, they caused late apoptosis and loss of cell viability in the upper N2a chamber due to H 2 O 2 and/or TNF-α release from BV-2. However, none of the adverse effects in N2a or BV-2 cells was observed when TiO 2 NPs were exposed to ALT-N2a or ALT-BV-2 co-culture. These results demonstrate that neuron damage can result from TiO 2 NP-mediated ROS and/or cytokines release from microglia, but not from astrocytes.