摘要
In this article, we develop a typology to explain how various forms of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in smart cities can be socially organized across multilevel dynamics. The empirical setting is a qualitative comparison of PPPs from 12 smart city initiatives in Taiwan. We ensure methodological rigor through representative case sampling, multisource data triangulation, iterative cross-case comparison, and validation via peer debriefing and practitioner feedback. Our findings indicate that smart city PPPs can be categorized based on the role of the central actors in bridging the public and private sectors. There are four forms of PPPs: national, functional, dominant, and financial. Each form is equifinal in effectiveness, yet distinct in its central actors, negotiation power between the public and private sectors, financial performance, public objectives, and applicable conditions. Our analysis offers practitioners a foundation for designing effective governance structures for smart city PPPs.